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Kinney, L. In this context, the association between black women and prostitution was explicitly made very often through representations of women of color as concubines of white men. In doing so, I exposed Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal discursive silences created by ruling elites around relations and zones of contact between black men and white women.

Dance places were the most usual venues for these remaining disapproved but nonetheless tolerated interracial encounters between white men and women of color.

While white women appeared as sexually inaccessible to men, quite the opposite was said about black, and particularly lighter skinned women, mulatas, Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal were often represented as sexually available to white men. Sentiments of fear and desire characterizing nineteenth century white male writing about racial mixing centered on the figure of la mulata constructed as Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal sexualized symbol of the whitening ideal and white male desire Kutzinski In reality, racial miscegenation was common and even acceptable within unions of women of color and white men of usually lower classes.

Marrying a white man was a common strategy of social mobility for families of color under the premise of racial advancement or blanqueamiento Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal As such, the bodies of mulatas offered a possible solution Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal the problem of how to incorporate Blacks into the project of the Cuban nation and simultaneously avoid a Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal revolution. In addition to everyday interactions in the homes of white masters, women of color generally met with white men at so-called cuna dances hosted by elite free black families in Havana, at parish fairs during religious holidays with mixed class and race attendance, and at dance academies.

For their part, escuelitas or academies were held at private residences where white men paid to practice dance with women both white and black under the direction of a black or mulato dance instructor. Encounters between white men and black women at these and other dance venues were common, although they were not well seen among white elites. The moral regulation of interracial dancing occurred particularly through costumbrista reviews in print periodicals, which served as channels of the anxieties Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal aspirations of middle- and upper-class white Cuban families.

Costumbrismo was a vernacular literary and artistic genre that emerged during the nineteenth century. The regulation at the societal level that costumbristas epitomized influenced the implementation of legal Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal of social control at the state level. As interracial dancing became a subject of concern following the growing popularity especially among white elites of African-influenced local rhythms, legal Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal were put forth to regulate dancing.

African musical traditions to European dance genres, particularly the French contredanseinfluenced these genres characteristic rhythmic accent. Through the music and dance performances of black musicians these local rhythms became creolized versions of European dance music and grew increasingly popular among white creole elites.

In press commentaries and satirical articles, white creole moralists extensively attacked the music and the movements accompanying them deemed lascivious and immoral. They criticized white families for taking Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal in them, especially white women who learned to dance from their mulata domestic servants or from men who learned from mulatas at dance academies Mena For example, costumbrista writer Luis Victoriano Betancourt charged against parents for corrupting their daughters by teaching them to dance.

The scandal consists in that the mothers teach their daughters to dance before teaching them to use a needle; or the family duties … it consists in Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal the man … learns in disgusting houses the cynical movements of the dance and later teaches them to unwary young women, corrupting thereby the same women whom he will marry tomorrow, and of whom he will dare to demand fidelity. While depictions of white women convey they were somehow threatened by dance, Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal literature and travel logs, mulatas often appear represented in dance settings and situations as menacing sexual temptations for white men Lane ; Kutzinski The illustrations depicted mulatas and black women with shoulders and breasts exposed, Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal insinuating poses and situations with white rich men; several scenes in the series Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal place in dance venues Kutzinski They are spendthrifts and vain.

For instance, while carriage promenading was the site where elite white women demonstrated their class status, moral worth, and prestige, dancing was a critical site where their reputation was put to test. In this context, the association between black women and prostitution was explicitly made very often through representations of women of color as concubines of white men.

Concubinage in the nineteenth century was in fact a discourse of a presumed naturally deviant black female sexuality. Their first encounter happens, not surprisingly, at a cuna dance ball of elite people of color in Havana. Gamboa abandons Cecilia for a white woman of his same class. These Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal of unacceptable but nonetheless tolerated encounters between white men and women of color were commonplace at dance academies.

Official regulations to enforce gender and race segregation at dance Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal came in response to denunciations of white elites in moralistic articles in the press as well as Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal complaints directed to police authorities. In this file, the neighborhood police officer refers to the captain general the feelings of the offended residents.

Furthermore, several complaints clearly allude to women at the dances as morally and sexually suspect. In fact, the women are of different sects [ sectas ] since there are white and mulatas, some of the former of not very good morals … the neighborhood considers prejudicial the establishment of such academies [ escuelitas ], not only for the scandals that cause the reunion of different classes, but also because often the dance lasts all night long which can be inferred of how they can behave when the majority of people are of few principles.

The moral panic Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal dance came to a peak alongside heated public controversies over prostitution during the late s and onto the late s against the backdrop of nationalist fights during and after the war years.

For example, in the Cuban National Archive Government collection a series of reports from inspectors of several districts in Havana dated from June 20, through December 31, In the reports, inspectors discuss at length the problem Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal interracial interactions at dance academies, in spite of the fact that, as they reiterate, its prohibition had been clearly stated in an earlier version of dance regulations.

Dancing was by this time, like prostitution, also used as a metaphor or set of codes to convey an urban sensory and social disorder. The updated ruling statutes also revised the kinds and number of instruments to perform the music for dancing at the academies held at residences every day of the week. The pen resists itself to describe the scandals occurring every day in those foci of dishonor [the dance academies] … to the sight of everybody, of the police officers first, of the pacific pedestrians later, who imagine living in a city where morality is respected and where prudery is a current and not derogated law, [they] transit through the public streets without suspecting that around the corner they will find scenes that for sure are not known in any other country.

This is a disease that we are denouncing … [which manifests at that level] of ulceration [in no other city like in this one] challenging the strongest stomachs. Scholars of prostitution in Cuba have observed that urban and social reform projects at midcentury were guided by mechanisms of mapping morality McCabe ; Sippial Policies to regulate prostitution, idleness, small businesses, or cabildos of Africans and their celebrations between the s and s in Cuba sought to manage and distribute the actions, behaviors, Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal bodies of marginalized subjects by morally coding them as acceptable or unacceptable within city limits.

These policies often involved the relocation of these morally tainted subjects to extramural areas of the city. In his original report dated December 25,the neighborhood captain offered an Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal antecedent that further backed his decision to revoke the license for the dance at the house of Don Ramon Cabral. In addition, I must let Your Excellency know that last month in a party at the house of the mentioned Cabral, there Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal the scandal about the dance not only of pardas with white men but also a brother of the house maid [ criada ] of Cabral Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal publicly in such dance.

The specific usage Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal not necessarily convey the spatial component of the action dancing as this was a family gathering held inside the home of Cabral. I have argued that dance in the Cuban colonial context was a tool of imperial control as well as a practice of resistance. Furthermore, dance venues were coded as spaces of danger to colonial elites peculiarly concerned with maintaining Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal, race, and class hierarchies.

In this context Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal surveillance, colonial subjects used dance venues strategically to mask subversive activities against white colonial rule, as well as to navigate through strict gender, racial, and sexual structures imposed by white colonial hegemony.

Masking as a political tactic of resistance used by colonial subjects was taken one step further at masked balls. The following examples drawn from criminal records for masked balls offer a window into the dynamics of governance and resistance at play at these instances. In response, ten days later the Captain General resolved the following as solutions.

And second, to avoid the fine, employees at Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal ticket booth must take the precaution to verify the skin color of Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal hands and arms of those entering in disguise to the theater.

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However, Blacks were not allowed at the white society balls that Hazard describes here. Colonial authorities granted licenses for either all white or all black balls, either masked which happened during carnivalor out of season.

It is likely that the people of color in disguise mentioned in the cited criminal record file participated in black carnival comparsas, which Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal street performances of dancers carrying flowered Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal and holding the edge of colored ribbons. Rowdiness and flamboyance were common characterizations of a different class of free black people in nineteenth-century Havana known as negros curroswho appear to be the protagonists of the incidents described in the above-cited criminal record file.

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The negros curros were black immigrants from Spain known and feared as criminals and pimps. Culturally speaking, they stood at the opposite end from the class of educated and Europeanized free Blacks in Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal.

Thus, in accordance with what is stated in this file, it was a habitual practice to ask attendees in costumes to remove their mask for verification of racial identity upon entering the balls. In the context of the heteronormative and sexually predisposing atmosphere of dancing, these kinds of interracial proximities offered the conditions for a particularly unacceptable kind of cross-racial-gender intimacy. In fact, the directionality or orientation Ahmed of desire of black and mulato men toward white women and vice-versa in the context of Havana society was Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal by the extent of colonial laws and white bourgeois and imperial imaginaries Stolcke In nineteenth-century Cuba, black male-white female relationships were beyond prohibitive: they were unthinkable.

In this case, romantic or sexual relations between white women and black men challenged the conventions expected of white women, that is class and race endogamous heterosexual relationships Stolcke Thus, the direction or orientation of desire from a white woman toward a black man was Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal taboo and thus silenced from dominant historical narratives and imaginaries. One must mistrust the destiny of a people that allows the sad confusion of Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal civilized and cultured race of the country with strange and uncultured elements that in Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal end triumph in their savage vices and customs, introducing them like a virus in the social organism either in the form of popular Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal, or in their rebel instincts.

As per the Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal narratives and silences that surrounded them, these instances of intimate proximity might have been exceptional and influenced by the festive atmosphere of dancing and of carnival. This is hardly arguable considering how ubiquitous dancing was in Havana society during the nineteenth century. Carnival season started in February and lasted several weeks, through Lent. Dancing masked or not was an everyday activity and so were the opportunities for cross-racial, gender, and class encounters.

However, dancing was only one of several of such instances of colonial contact. Religious gatherings at parish fairs, plazas, and churches also provided opportunities for otherwise inadmissible proximity, particularly between men and white upper-class women.

It was censorable—as it now still seems to me, when I see the scene reproduced—seeing how skins, and how the humble lad hurried, introducing his head and body inside the carriage, demanding orders. How could it be allowed to let a stranger inside the home, by traditional custom?

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Because, the interior of a family carriage is like an intimate budoir. These were the kinds of proximities with which Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal and colonized cohabitated in shared spaces for almost four centuries.

However, since the early nineteenth century they became the source of pressing white bourgeois anxieties and imperial control. The examples above have shown that policing boundaries of race, sex, and gender in dance settings was Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal than often a failed technology of colonial rule.

I have discussed colonial intimacies, contact zones, and the governance of dance and sexuality based on evidence from government records and other primary and secondary sources to either allow or forbid particular types of dance gatherings mixed dance academies, dance gatherings of plantation slavesor to impose disciplining measures to transgressors of existing statutes in the context of masked balls and street carnival. Considering that the evidence shows that at instances of dance, masking and Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal sex, were two equally powerful anxiety-generating elements for ruling classes.

These two elements represented a potential threat to empire and white hegemony because they affected their capacity to classify and control individuals, therefore creating a crisis of representation McClintock The incident at the street carnival in Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal illustrates the impotence of colonial authority to respond to a seemingly uncontrollable mob of masqueraders transgressing the order on many levels.

The combination of masking and the looming possibility of interracial sex at this dangerous instance of interracial encounter created a moral panic that paralyzed colonial authority. Respectability demanded an often-ridiculous insistence to keep appearances and conform to strict molds of conduct by white European standards. In a context of the socially institutionalized Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal of whiteness, moral panics over dance, interracial Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal, and prostitution were no more than covers of white bourgeois double standards.

Each of them— Afro-Cuban dancing, interracial sex, and prostitution—were seen as inevitable and necessary evils as was slavery itselfand crucial elements for the survival and preservation of white hegemony and the colonial order. Interracial sex was the inevitable avenue to incorporate slave population into the Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal without risking colonial rule through the potential ousting led by insurgent Blacks. Ruling classes actively took part in these forbidden spaces.

They also maintained clandestine romantic and sexual relationships with them and probably also used the services of prostitutes. Through these inevitable cultural transgressions and appropriations, white creoles developed their own project of cultural identity, which played an important role in the political processes of Cuban independence and national Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal making that flared up in the second half of Prostitutes Ciudad Lineal nineteenth century.

In doing so, I exposed the discursive silences created by ruling elites around relations and zones of contact between black men and white women. This analysis may inspire further discussions about the role of moral governance and colonial control in zones of contact and their role in the construction and preservation of normative regimes of sexual and affective orientation in the colonial context and beyond.

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